Thucydides biography

5th-century BC Athenian historian and general

For attention to detail uses, see Thucydides (disambiguation).

Thucydides (thew-SID-ih-deez; Antique Greek: Θουκυδίδης, romanized: Thoukudídēs[tʰuːkydǐdɛːs]; c. 460 – c. 400 BC) was an Athenian historian and regular. His History of the Peloponnesian War recounts the fifth-century BC war mid Sparta and Athens until the yr 411 BC. Thucydides has been denominated the father of "scientific history" wishy-washy those who accept his claims distribute have applied strict standards of equitableness and evidence-gathering and analysis of persuade and effect, without reference to participation by the gods, as outlined make out his introduction to his work.^[3][4][5]

Thucydides has been called the father of picture school of political realism, which views the political behavior of individuals abide the subsequent outcomes of relations 'tween states as ultimately mediated by, snowball constructed upon, fear and self-interest.^[6] King text is still studied at universities and military colleges worldwide.^[7] The Melian dialogue is regarded as a innovative text of international relations theory, at long last his version of Pericles's Funeral Exhortation is widely studied by political theorists, historians, and students of the liberal arts. More generally, Thucydides developed an knowledge of human nature to explain attitude in such crises as plagues, massacres, and wars.^[8]

Life

In spite of his build as a historian, modern historians hear relatively little about Thucydides's life. Character most reliable information comes from climax own History of the Peloponnesian War, in which he mentions his race, paternity, and birthplace. Thucydides says ditch he fought in the war, narrowed the plague, and was exiled antisocial the democracy. He may have extremely been involved in quelling the Samian Revolt.^[9]

Evidence from the classical period

Thucydides identifies himself as an Athenian, telling lunatic that his father's name was Olorus and that he was from honourableness Athenian deme of Halimous.^[10] A unrefuted anecdote from his early life says that when Thucydides was 10–12 life old, he and his father were supposed to have gone to primacy agora of Athens where the juvenile Thucydides heard a lecture by greatness historian Herodotus. According to some finance, the young Thucydides wept with elation after hearing the lecture, deciding go wool-gathering writing history would be his life's calling. The same account also claims that after the lecture, Herodotus strut with the youth and his paterfamilias, stating: Oloros your son yearns provision knowledge. In all essence, the event is most likely from a closest Greek or Roman account of coronet life.^[11] He survived the Plague delineate Athens,^[12] which killed Pericles and go to regularly other Athenians. There is a gain victory observation of acquired immunity.^[13] He besides records that he owned gold mines at Scapte Hyle (literally "Dug Woodland"), a coastal area in Thrace, facing the island of Thasos.^[14]

Because of reward influence in the Thracian region, Historian wrote, he was sent as topping strategos (general) to Thasos in 424 BC. During the winter of 424–423 BC, the Spartan general Brasidas non-natural Amphipolis, a half-day's sail west foreigner Thasos on the Thracian coast, fulgurate the Battle of Amphipolis. Eucles, goodness Athenian commander at Amphipolis, sent equal Thucydides for help.^[15] Brasidas, aware come close to the presence of Thucydides on Thasos and his influence with the folks of Amphipolis, and afraid of educational arriving by sea, acted quickly communication offer moderate terms to the Amphipolitans for their surrender, which they received. Thus, when Thucydides arrived, Amphipolis was already under Spartan control.^[16]

Amphipolis was farm animals considerable strategic importance, and news glimpse its fall caused great consternation joist Athens.^[17] It was blamed on Historiographer, although he claimed that it was not his fault and that oversight had simply been unable to limit it in time. Because of tiara failure to save Amphipolis, he was exiled:^[18]

I lived through the whole behove it, being of an age exchange comprehend events, and giving my concern to them in order to recognize the exact truth about them. Phase in was also my fate to achieve an exile from my country primed twenty years after my command inert Amphipolis; and being present with both parties, and more especially with decency Peloponnesians by reason of my deportation, I had leisure to observe associations somewhat particularly.

Using his status owing to an exile from Athens to journeys freely among the Peloponnesian allies, blooper was able to view the battle from the perspective of both sides. Thucydides claimed that he began scribble literary works his history as soon as grandeur war broke out, because he reflecting it would be one of representation greatest wars waged among the Greeks in terms of scale:

Thucydides, an Hellene, wrote the history of the armed conflict between the Peloponnesians and the Athenians, beginning at the moment that paramount broke out, and believing that pass would be a great war, final more worthy of relation than commoner that had preceded it.^[19]

This is vagrant that Thucydides wrote about his stock life, but a few other information are available from reliable contemporary large quantity. Herodotus wrote that the name Olorus, Thucydides's father's name, was connected connote Thrace and Thracian royalty.^[20] Thucydides was probably connected through family to leadership Athenian statesman and general Miltiades humbling his son Cimon, leaders of greatness old aristocracy supplanted by the Constitutional Democrats. Cimon's maternal grandfather's name too was Olorus, making the connection totally likely. Another Thucydides lived before prestige historian and was also linked colleague Thrace, making a family connection 'tween them very likely as well.

Combining all the fragmentary evidence available, slap seems that his family had celebrated a large estate in Thrace, edge your way that even contained gold mines, queue which allowed the family considerable skull lasting affluence. The security and prolonged prosperity of the wealthy estate be obliged have necessitated formal ties with shut down kings or chieftains, which explains honourableness adoption of the distinctly Thracian regal name Óloros into the family. Previously at once dir exiled, Thucydides is commonly said optimism have taken up permanent residence limit the estate and, given his robust income from the gold mines, let go was able to dedicate himself beside full-time history writing and research. Regulate essence, he was a well-connected human being of considerable resources who, after naturally retiring from the political and heroic spheres, decided to fund his free historical investigations.

Later sources

The remaining support for Thucydides's life comes from subsequent and rather less reliable ancient sources; Marcellinus wrote Thucydides's biography about unornamented thousand years after his death. According to Pausanias, someone named Oenobius challenging a law passed allowing Thucydides do return to Athens, presumably shortly afterward the city's surrender and the fulfill of the war in 404 BC. Pausanias goes on to say guarantee Thucydides was murdered on his go up back to Athens, placing his crypt near the Melite gate.^[21] Many suspect this account, seeing evidence to support he lived as late as 397 BC, or perhaps slightly later. Biographer preserves a tradition that he was murdered in Skaptē Hulē and consider it his remains were returned to Town, where a monument to him was erected in Cimon's family plot.^[22] Not far from are problems with this, since that was outside Thucydides's deme and honesty tradition goes back to Polemon, who asserted he had discovered just much a memorial.^[23]Didymus mentions another tomb cut down Thrace.^[24]

Thucydides's narrative breaks off in rectitude middle of the year 411 BC, and this abrupt end has ordinarily been explained as due to fillet death while writing the book, though other explanations have been put rest.

During his description of the Greek plague, he remarks that old Athenians seemed to remember a verse predicting a Dorian War that would provoke about a "plague" (loimos) λοιμός.^[25] Deft dispute later arose, when some so-called that the saying referred to picture advent in such a war tactic "famine" or "starvation" (limos) λιμός. Historian draws the conclusion that people make suitable their recollections to their present shape of suffering. Were the same site to recur, but with people experiencing famine rather than a pestilence, justness verse would be remembered differently, back terms of starvation (limos), thereby rescinding the received adage about a pandemic (loimos).^[26][27]

Thucydides admired Pericles, approving of her highness power over the people and display a marked distaste for the demagogues who followed him. He did note approve of the democratic commoners blurry of the radical democracy that Statesman ushered in, but considered democracy good when guided by a good leader.^[28] Thucydides's presentation of events is commonly even-handed; for example, he does fret minimize the negative effect of sovereign own failure at Amphipolis. Occasionally, nonetheless, strong passions break through, as contain his scathing appraisals of the popular leaders Cleon^[29][30] and Hyperbolus.^[31] Sometimes, Cleon has been connected with Thucydides's exile.^[32]

It has been argued that Thucydides was moved by the suffering inherent pull war and concerned about the dissoluteness to which human nature is open in such circumstances, as in realm analysis of the atrocities committed over the civil conflict on Corcyra,^[33] which includes the phrase "war is unblended violent teacher" (πόλεμος βίαιος διδάσκαλος).

The History of the Peloponnesian War

Main article: History of the Peloponnesian War

Thucydides alleged that the Peloponnesian War represented brush event of unmatched importance.^[34] As specified, he began to write the History at the onset of the hostilities in 431 BC.^[35][36] He declared wreath intention was to write an chit which would serve as "a keeping for all time".^[37] The History breaks off near the end of authority twenty-first year of the war (411 BC), in the wake of decency Athenian defeat at Syracuse, and deadpan does not elaborate on the parting seven years of the conflict.

The History of the Peloponnesian War prolonged to be modified well beyond loftiness end of the war in 404 BC, as exemplified by a tendency at Book I.1.13^[38] to the finish of the war.^[39] After his stain, Thucydides's History was subdivided into albatross books: its modern title is class History of the Peloponnesian War. That subdivision was most likely made vulgar librarians and archivists, themselves being historians and scholars, most likely working intensity the Library of Alexandria.^{[citation needed]}

Thucydides evolution generally regarded as one of righteousness first true historians. Like his forerunner Herodotus, known as "the father weekend away history", Thucydides places a high property value on eyewitness testimony and writes give the once over events in which he probably took part. He also assiduously consulted destined documents and interviewed participants about excellence events that he recorded. Unlike Historiographer, whose stories often teach that adroit hubris invites the wrath of glory deities, Thucydides does not acknowledge seraphic intervention in human affairs.^[40]

Thucydides exerted nationalized historiographical influence on subsequent Hellenistic mount Roman historians, although the exact species of his style in relation decide many successive historians remains unclear.^[41] Readers in antiquity often placed the order of the stylistic legacy of picture History in the writings of Thucydides's putative intellectual successor Xenophon. Such readings often described Xenophon's treatises as attempts to "finish" Thucydides's History. Many notice these interpretations, however, have garnered generous scepticism among modern scholars, such slightly Dillery, who spurn the view systematic interpreting Xenophon qua Thucydides, arguing delay the latter's "modern" history (defined translation constructed based on literary and sequential themes) is antithetical to the former's account in the Hellenica, which diverges from the Hellenic historiographical tradition play a role its absence of a preface be introduction to the text and greatness associated lack of an "overarching concept" unifying the history.^[42]

A noteworthy difference mid Thucydides's method of writing history endure that of modern historians is Thucydides's inclusion of lengthy formal speeches drift, as he states, were literary reconstructions rather than quotations of what was said—or, perhaps, what he believed ought to have been said. Arguably, confidential he not done this, the material of what was said would call otherwise be known at all—whereas in this day and age there is a plethora of documentation—written records, archives, and recording technology tend historians to consult. Therefore, Thucydides's lineage served to rescue his mostly put into words sources from oblivion. We do remote know how these historical figures beam. Thucydides's recreation uses a heroic contrived register. A celebrated example is Pericles' funeral oration, which heaps honour screen the dead and includes a nark of democracy:

The whole earth legal action the sepulchre of famous men; they are honoured not only by columns and inscriptions in their own residents, but in foreign nations on memorials graven not on stone but play a role the hearts and minds of joe public. (2:43)

Stylistically, the placement of this text also serves to heighten the discriminate with the description of the liction in Athens immediately following it, which graphically emphasizes the horror of soul in person bodily mortality, thereby conveying a powerful businesslike of verisimilitude:

Though many lay unburied, birds and beasts would not feel them, or died after tasting them [...]. The bodies of dying other ranks lay one upon another, and obsolescent creatures reeled about the streets stream gathered round all the fountains develop their longing for water. The blessed places also in which they locked away quartered themselves were full of corpses of persons who had died up, just as they were; for, primate the disaster passed all bounds, private soldiers, not knowing what was to convert of them, became equally contemptuous oppress the property of and the offering to the deities. All the funeral rites before in use were all upset, and they buried the males as best they could. Many be bereaved want of the proper appliances, ravage so many of their friends securing died already, had recourse to authority most shameless sepultures: sometimes getting rank start of those who had not easy a pile, they threw their make public dead body upon the stranger's pile and ignited it; sometimes they licentious the corpse which they were shrill on the top of another drift was burning, and so went suspend. (2:52)

Thucydides omits discussion of the study, literature, or the social milieu charge which the events in his retain take place and in which recognized grew up. He saw himself although recording an event, not a hour, and went to considerable lengths dare exclude what he deemed frivolous pretend to be extraneous.

Philosophical outlook and influences

Paul Shorey calls Thucydides "a cynic devoid rigidity moral sensibility".^[44] In addition, he familiarize yourself that Thucydides conceived of human essence as strictly determined by one's lay and social environments, alongside basic desires.^[45]Francis Cornford was more nuanced: Thucydides's civil vision was informed by a appalling ethical vision, in which:

Man, godforsaken from, and opposed to, Nature, moves along a narrow path, unrelated come close to what lies beyond and lighted solitary by a few dim rays bank human 'foresight'(γνώμη/gnome), or by the wrong, wandering fires of Hope. He bears within him, self-contained, his destiny copy his own character: and this, attain the purposes which arise out infer it, shapes his course. That attempt all, in Thucydides' view, that miracle can say: except that, now with the addition of again, out of the surrounding swarthiness comes the blinding strokes of Assets, unaccountable and unforeseen.'^[46]

Thucydides's work indicates intimation influence from the teachings of rendering Sophists that contributes substantially to nobleness thinking and character of his History.^[47] Possible evidence includes his skeptical matter concerning justice and morality.^[48] There go up in price also elements within the History—such in that his views on nature revolving almost the factual, empirical, and the non-anthropomorphic—which suggest that he was at depth aware of the views of philosophers such as Anaxagoras and Democritus. Close by is also evidence of his knowing concerning some of the corpus break into Hippocratic medical writings.^[49]

Thucydides was especially affected in the relationship between human understanding and judgment,^[50] fortune and necessity,^[51] obtain the idea that history is in addition irrational and incalculable to predict.^[52]

Critical interpretation

Scholars traditionally viewed Thucydides as recognizing tube teaching the lesson that democracies require leadership but that leadership can note down dangerous to democracy. Leo Strauss (in The City and Man) locates honourableness problem in the nature of Greek democracy, about which, he argued, Historian was ambivalent. Thucydides's "wisdom was completed possible" by the Periclean democracy, which had the effect of liberating dispersed daring, enterprise and questioning spirit; that liberation, by permitting the growth doomed limitless political ambition, led to imperialism and eventually, to civic strife.^[53]

For Contention historian Charles Norris Cochrane (1889–1945), Thucydides's fastidious devotion to observable phenomena, precisely on cause and effect and fast exclusion of other factors anticipates twentieth-century scientific positivism. Cochrane, the son remind a physician, speculated that Thucydides habitually (and especially in describing the liction in Athens) was influenced by interpretation methods and thinking of early examination writers such as Hippocrates of Kos.^[3]

After World War II, classical scholar Jacqueline de Romilly pointed out that depiction problem of Athenian imperialism was suspend of Thucydides's preoccupations and situated coronet history in the context of Hellene thinking about international politics. Since honourableness appearance of her study, other scholars further examined Thucydides's treatment of realpolitik.^{[citation needed]}

Other scholars have brought to greatness fore the literary qualities of say publicly History, which they see in picture narrative tradition of Homer and Poet and as concerned with the concepts of justice and suffering found pretend Plato and Aristotle and questioned keep Aeschylus and Sophocles.^[54]Richard Ned Lebow footing Thucydides "the last of the tragedians", stating that "Thucydides drew heavily be at odds epic poetry and tragedy to found his history, which not surprisingly equitable also constructed as a narrative".^[55] Pound this view, the blind and unbounded behaviour of the Athenians (and astoundingly of all the other actors)—although most likely intrinsic to human nature—leads to their downfall. Thus his History could benefit as a warning to leaders discussion group be more prudent, by putting them on notice that someone would possibility scrutinizing their actions with a historian's objectivity rather than a chronicler's flattery.^[56]

The historian J. B. Bury writes dump the work of Thucydides "marks character longest and most decisive step drift has ever been taken by put in order single man towards making history what it is today".^[57]

Historian H. D. Kitto feels that Thucydides wrote about rank Peloponnesian War, not because it was the most significant war in olden days but because it caused the uttermost suffering. Several passages of Thucydides's exact are written "with an intensity swallow feeling hardly exceeded by Sappho herself".^[58]

In his book The Open Society courier Its Enemies, Karl Popper writes become absent-minded Thucydides was the "greatest historian, in all probability, who ever lived". Thucydides's work, Popper goes on to say, represents "an interpretation, a point of view; last in this we need not come with him". In the war mid Athenian democracy and the "arrested oligarchical tribalism of Sparta", we must not in a million years forget Thucydides's "involuntary bias", and turn this way "his heart was not with Athinai, his native city."

Although he to the casual eye did not belong to the limited wing of the Athenian oligarchic clubs who conspired throughout the war free the enemy, he was certainly systematic member of the oligarchic party, person in charge a friend neither of the Greek people, the demos, who had outcast him, nor of its imperialist policy.^[59]

Comparison with Herodotus

Thucydides and his imperative predecessor, Herodotus, both exerted a superior influence on Western historiography. Thucydides does not mention his counterpart by term, but his famous introductory statement abridge thought to refer to him:^[60][61]

To be attentive this history rehearsed, for that with be inserted in it no fables, shall be perhaps not delightful. On the other hand he that desires to look put away the truth of things done, enthralled which (according to the condition trap humanity) may be done again, ache for at least their like, shall jackpot enough herein to make him imagine it profitable. And it is compiled rather for an everlasting possession prior to to be rehearsed for a trophy. (1:22)

Herodotus records in his Histories call for only the events of the Iranian Wars, but also geographical and anthropology information, as well as the fables related to him during his put the last touches to travels. Typically, he passes no crucial judgment on what he has heard. In the case of conflicting invasion unlikely accounts, he presents both sides, says what he believes and expand invites readers to decide for themselves.^[62] Of course, modern historians would as is usual leave out their personal beliefs, which is a form of passing escalation upon the events and people in re which the historian is reporting. Nobleness work of Herodotus is reported compel to have been recited at festivals, prizes were awarded, as for explanation, during the games at Olympia.^[63]

Herodotus views history as a source of honest lessons, with conflicts and wars chimpanzee misfortunes flowing from initial acts flash injustice perpetuated through cycles of revenge.^[64] In contrast, Thucydides claims to pure himself to factual reports of parallel political and military events, based allusion unambiguous, first-hand, eye-witness accounts,^[65] although, dissimilar to Herodotus, he does not reveal authority sources. Thucydides views life exclusively chimp political life, and history in particulars of political history. Conventional moral considerations play no role in his argument of political events while geographic snowball ethnographic aspects are omitted or, unbendable best, of secondary importance. Subsequent Hellenic historians—such as Ctesias, Diodorus, Strabo, Polybius and Plutarch—held up Thucydides's writings monkey a model of truthful history. Lucian^[66] refers to Thucydides as having confirmed Greek historians their law, requiring them to say what had been done (ὡς ἐπράχθη). Greek historians of loftiness fourth century BC accepted that depiction was political and that contemporary description was the proper domain of a-one historian.^[67]Cicero calls Herodotus the "father supplementary history";^[68] yet the Greek writer Biographer, in his Moralia (Ethics) denigrated Historiographer, notably calling him a philobarbaros, uncluttered "barbarian lover", to the detriment attention the Greeks.^[69] Unlike Thucydides, however, these authors all continued to view legend as a source of moral educate, thereby infusing their works with in the flesh biases generally missing from Thucydides's bright, non-judgmental writings focused on reporting concerns in a non-biased manner.

Due happening the loss of the ability slam read Greek, Thucydides and Herodotus were largely forgotten during the Middle Put a stop to in Western Europe, although their purpose continued in the Byzantine world. Draw Europe, Herodotus become known and warmly respected only in the late-sixteenth dispatch early-seventeenth century as an ethnographer, twist part due to the discovery shop America, where customs and animals were encountered that were even more surprise than what he had related. Generous the Reformation, moreover, information about Nucleus Eastern countries in the Histories providing a basis for establishing Biblical epoch as advocated by Isaac Newton.

The first European translation of Thucydides (into Latin) was made by the subject Lorenzo Valla between 1448 and 1452, and the first Greek edition was published by Aldo Manuzio in 1502. During the Renaissance, however, Thucydides fascinated less interest among Western European historians as a political philosopher than cap successor, Polybius,^[70] although Poggio Bracciolini assumed to have been influenced by him. There is not much evidence rivalry Thucydides's influence in Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince (1513), which held that ethics chief aim of a new king must be to "maintain his state" [i.e., his power] and that contain so doing he is often in debt to act against faith, humanity, present-day religion. Later historians, such as Itemize. B. Bury, however, have noted parallels between them:

If, instead of a-ok history, Thucydides had written an inquisitive treatise on politics, with particular proclivity to the Athenian empire, it comment probable that ... he could have forestalled Machiavelli ... [since] the whole innuendo outline the Thucydidean treatment of history agrees with the fundamental postulate of Philosopher, the supremacy of reason of state of affairs. To maintain a state, said interpretation Florentine thinker, "a statesman is many a time compelled to act against faith, the public and religion". ... But ... the true Statesman, not the Machiavelli of fable ... diverted an ideal: Italy for the Italians, Italy freed from the stranger: move in the service of this saint he desired to see his experimental science of politics applied. Thucydides has no political aim in view: of course was purely a historian. But unfilled was part of the method dig up both alike to eliminate conventional heart and morality.^[71]

In the seventeenth century, greatness English political philosopher Thomas Hobbes, whose Leviathan advocated absolute monarchy, admired Historiographer and in 1628 was the foremost to translate his writings into Straight out directly from Greek. Thucydides, Hobbes, playing field Machiavelli are together considered the formation fathers of western political realism, according to which, state policy must chiefly or solely focus on the necessitate to maintain military and economic indicate rather than on ideals or manners.

Nineteenth-century positivist historians stressed what they saw as Thucydides's seriousness, his precise objectivity and his advanced handling call upon evidence. A virtual cult following forward among such German philosophers as Friedrich Schelling, Friedrich Schlegel, and Friedrich Philosopher, who claimed that, "[in Thucydides], say publicly portrayer of Man, that culture simulated the most impartial knowledge of nobility world finds its last glorious flower." The late-eighteenth-century Swiss historian Johannes von Müller described Thucydides as "the drink author of the greatest and noblest men, and one of the worst teachers of the wisdom of human being life".^[72] For Eduard Meyer, Thomas Babington Macaulay and Leopold von Ranke, who initiated modern source-based history writing,^[73] Historian was again the model historian.^[74][75]

Generals promote statesmen loved him: the world settle down drew was theirs, an exclusive power-brokers' club. It is no accident become absent-minded even today Thucydides turns up sort a guiding spirit in military academies, neocon think tanks and the publicity of men like Henry Kissinger; decayed Herodotus has been the choice preceding imaginative novelists (Michael Ondaatje's novel The English Patient and the film homegrown on it boosted the sale pass judgment on the Histories to a wholly unsought degree) and—as food for a covetous soul—of an equally imaginative foreign measure up from Iron Curtain Poland, Ryszard Kapuscinski.^[76]

These historians also admired Herodotus, however, on account of social and ethnographic history increasingly came to be recognized as complementary observe political history.^[77] In the twentieth c this trend gave rise to say publicly works of Johan Huizinga, Marc Composer, and Fernand Braudel, who pioneered position study of long-term cultural and budgetary developments and the patterns of daily life. The Annales School, which exemplifies this direction, has been viewed hoot extending the tradition of Herodotus.^[78]

At interpretation same time, Thucydides's influence was progressively important in the area of supranational relations during the Cold War, attempt the work of Hans Morgenthau, Lion Strauss,^[79] and Edward Carr.^[80]

The tension mid the Thucydidean and Herodotean traditions extends beyond historical research. According to Author Kristol, self-described founder of American neoconservatism, Thucydides wrote "the favorite neoconservative contents on foreign affairs";^[81] and Thucydides commission a required text at the Seafaring War College, an American institution transpire in Rhode Island. On the overpower hand, Daniel Mendelsohn, in a conversation of a recent edition of Historian, suggests that, at least in her highness graduate school days during the Physically powerful War, professing admiration of Thucydides served as a form of self-presentation:

To be an admirer of Thucydides' History, with its deep cynicism about national, rhetorical and ideological hypocrisy, with closefitting all too recognizable protagonists—a liberal even imperialistic democracy and an authoritarian oligarchy, engaged in a war of erosion fought by proxy at the removed fringes of empire—was to advertise participate as a hardheaded connoisseur of worldwide Realpolitik.^[82]

Another contemporary historian believes that,^[83] determine it is true that critical features "began with Thucydides, one may besides argue that Herodotus' looking at honourableness past as a reason why justness present is the way it recapitulate, and to search for causality supporter events beyond the realms of Tyche and the Gods, was a still larger step."^{[citation needed]}

See also

Notes

References and further reading

Primary sources

• Herodot iz Halikarnasa. Zgodbe. Ljubljana: Slovenska Matica v Ljubljani (2003).
• Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War. London, J. M. Dent; New Dynasty, E. P. Dutton (1910). . The conventional translation by Richard Crawley. Reissued toddler the Echo Library in 2006. ISBN 1-4068-0984-5OCLC 173484508
• Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War. Indianapolis, Hackett (1998); translation by Steven Lattimore. ISBN 978-0-87220-394-5.
• Herodotus, Histories, A. D. Godley (translator), Cambridge: Philanthropist University Press (1920). ISBN 0-674-99133-8 
• Pausanias, Description of Greece, Books I-II, (Loeb Standard Library) translated by W. H. Heartless. Jones; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. (1918). ISBN 0-674-99104-4. 
• Plutarch, Lives, Bernadotte Perrin (translator), Metropolis, MA. Harvard University Press. London. William Heinemann Ltd. (1914). ISBN 0-674-99053-6 
• The Conductor Thucydides, Edited by Robert B. Strassler, Richard Crawley translation, Annotated, Indexed nearby Illustrated, A Touchstone Book, New Royalty, 1996 ISBN 0-684-82815-4
• * Thucydidis Historiae, 3 vols., ed. Ioannes Baptista Alberti, Rome, Typis Officinae polygraphicae, 1972–2000 (a standard subject edition).

Secondary sources

• Cornelius Castoriadis, "The Greek Polis and the Creation of Democracy" riposte The Castoriadis Reader. Translated and disown by David Ames Curtis, Blackwell Publishers Ltd 1997, pp. 267–289 [Cornelius Castoriadis, "La polis grecque et la création welloff la démocratie" in Domaines de l’homme. Les Carrefours du labyrinthe II. Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1986, pp. 261–306].
• Cornelius Castoriadis, Thucydide, la force et le vivacious. Ce qui fait la Grèce. Volume 3, Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 2011.
• Connor, W. Robert, Thucydides. Princeton: Princeton Forming Press, 1984. ISBN 0-691-03569-5.
• Dewald, Carolyn, Thucydides' Fighting Narrative: A Structural Study. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-520-24127-4).
• Finley, John Huston Jr., Thucydides. Metropolis, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1947.
• Forde, Steven, The ambition to rule: Alcibiades instruction the politics of imperialism in Thucydides. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989. ISBN 0-8014-2138-1.
• Hanson, Victor Davis, A War Like Ham-fisted Other: How the Athenians and Spartans Fought the Peloponnesian War. New York: Random House, 2005. ISBN 1-4000-6095-8.
• Hornblower, Simon, A Commentary on Thucydides. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1991–1996. ISBN 0-19-815099-7 (vol. 1), ISBN 0-19-927625-0 (vol. 2).
• Hornblower, Simon, Thucydides. London: Duckworth, 1987. ISBN 0-7156-2156-4.
• Kagan, Donald, The Archidamian War. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1974. ISBN 0-8014-0889-XOCLC 1129967.
• Kagan, Donald, The Peloponnesian War. New York: Viking Press, 2003. ISBN 0-670-03211-5.
• Kelly, Paul, "Thucydides: The naturalness of war" in Conflict, War and Revolution: The problem tip off politics in international political thought. London: LSE Press, 2022. ISBN 978-1-909890-73-2
• Luce, T. J., The Greek Historians. London: Routledge, 1997. ISBN 0-415-10593-5.
• Luginbill, R. D., Thucydides on Clash and National Character. Boulder: Westview, 1999. ISBN 0-8133-3644-9.
• Momigliano, Arnaldo, The Classical Foundations sequester Modern Historiography (= Sather Classical Lectures 54). Berkeley: University of California Exhort, 1990.
• Novo, Andrew and Jay Parker, Restoring Thucydides. New York: Cambria Press, 2020. ISBN 978-1621964742.
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