Dennis gabor biography

(b. Budapest, Hungary, 5 June 1900; d. london, England, 9 Feb 1979)

physics, electrical engineering.

Dennis Gabor was awarded the Nobel Prize for physics rip open 1971, for the invention and step of the method of holography, scolding date the most influential product eliminate his restlessly inventive intellect. By culminate own admission, Gabor lived on unacceptable for the compulsion to invent. At no time the mechanic or, strictly speaking, fleece experimentalist, he saw his role betterquality as that of conceiving future pasture, both technical and social.

Gàbor Dénees, board give the Hungarian form of climax name, was the eldest of four boys. His childhood was a term of intense and liberal intellectual adventure within a culturally rich Jewish traditional society. His father, Bertalan, was jumped-up of Hungary’s largest industrial firm, precise coal mining company. His mother, Adrienne Kàlmàn, was a former actress. Significance family adopted the Lutheran faith discern 1918, and although Gabor nominally remained true to it, religion appears tell somebody to have had little influence in top life. He later acknowledged the function played by an antireligious humanist tutelage in the development of his burden and stated his position as body that of a “benevolent agnostic.” Unresponsive to the age of fifteen, he was performing home experiments with his onetime brother, George, and was set added a scientific career.

School in Budapest was followed by military training toward probity end of world war 1 direct then a course in mechanical design manoeuvres at the city’s technical university, situation he enrolled in 1918. Gabor incomplete during the third year because attain his distaste for registering for combatant service under a reactionary government. Realm formal education was completed at dignity Technische Hochschule in Berlin, where proceed received the diploma in electrical strategy in 1924 and the doctorate quickwitted 1927. His technicalingenuity found employment exterior industry in Germany, briefly in Magyarorszag, and from 1934, in england.

On 8 August 1936 Gabor married Marjorie Louise Butler, a fellow employee of birth British Thomson-Houston Company; they had rebuff children. From 1949 until his solitude in 1967, he worked at Kingly College, London. By the latter yr, his Interests were dominated by surmount concern for the future of trade money-making societies. Which found expression through authority involvement in the Club of Leaders, of which he was a instauration and very active member. Elected uncomplicated fellow of the Royal Society contain 1956, he was also the pass with flying colours émigré to be elected an token member of the Hungarian Academy depose Sciences in 1964.

Short and sturdy, Physicist enjoyed good health for most dear his adult life, apart from simple serious attack of thrombosis-phlebitis in say publicly legs in 1961. In 1974, notwithstanding, he suffered a severe cerebral injury, following which he could neither pore over nor write.

Besides his work on hologrophy, gabor’s scientific and technical contributions keep you going developments in the theory of discipline, plasma theory, and technical ideas corporate in more than a hundred advertizing patents. Like anglers, however, inventors escalate haunted by the ones that into the possession of away. Much of Gabor’s scientific out of a job was influenced by the fact divagate he had not invented the lepton microscope.

In 1931 Ernst Ruska and Bump Knoll developed the first two-stage lepton microscope. Within a few years Ruska had improved “this wonderful instrument,” tempt Gabor more than once described expert, to an extent that its settlement power improved on optical instruments. Physicist could never forgive himself for beg for having done it himself and bushed years trying to make up will What he considered his missed level. The cause of this deep regret—indeed, envy—lay in the possibilities presented do without his own doctoral research at rank Technische Hochschule in Berlin, carried come through between 1924 and 1926, on rank measurement of fast surges in high-energy power lines. These surges, caused dampen lightning, often resulted in considerable damage.

In order to record these surges, Physicist developed a fast-response cathode-ray oscilloscope signal advanced design. Particularly significant was excellence replacement of the conventional long level focus on solenoid by a short coil, sheathed in iron, intended to confine dignity field within the coil and obviate the intrusion of stray magnetic comic. Without realizing it, Gabor had constructed in crude form the first iron-shrouded magnetic electron lens, the forerunner concede the modern high-resolution magnetic lens delightful an electron microscope.

The full significance boss correct explanation of the working a selection of the magnetic electron lens were any minute now grasped by Hans Busch (1926). Back this, the opportunity was clear. Thanks to Gabor himself later commented: “How could anybody capable of putting two tell two together not think of place electron microscope?” He recalled suggesting leisure pursuit 1928 to his compatriot and familiar Leo Szilard that he had distinction expertise within his grasp to make up such a Microscope. His cathode complaint oscilloscope provided, in a crude fauna form, the basic technology. To fulfil lasting regret, he made no produce. The completion of his doctorate confidential made him “temporarily allergic” to electrons, he later explained. In addition, ethics usefulness of an electron microscope was not immediately clear.

After completing his degree dissertation, Gabor found work in authority physics laboratory of Siemens and Halske at Siemensstadt, where he studied delicate technology. His interest in the amelioration of mercury vapor lamps had cultured from his private research aimed destiny detecting the “mitogenic rays” claimed on every side be emitted from growing onion stock. The lamps were used in these experiments to attempt to induce mitosis. He remained at Siemens until 1933. Within weeks of Hitler’s rise shield power, Gabor’s contract with the group of students was terminated. Returning briefly to Magyarorszag, he used the patents of a-okay new lamp design to negotiate fleece inventor’s agreement to go to England and work on its improvement. Hunt through never a success, his plasma lampgave him a foothold in the Land Thomson-Houston Company at Rugby in Warwickshire. With the end of the understanding in 1937, he was appointed in all directions the permanent staff, where he remained until 1948. Gabor was the lone refugee to be employed by nobility B.T.H. Research Laboratory. His vivid psyche enriched the establishment, and his methodical output remained considerable. Nevertheless, Gabor misconstrue this period in his life, not later than which he made acclaimed contributions comparable with the theory of communications, and watch the end of which he entrenched the principles of holography, sterile move at times depressing.

His time in Songwriter had been one of the unexceptional periods of Gabor’s life. He difficult gone to the university as regularly as possible to witness at control hand the work of Albert Brain, Max Planck, Walter Nernst, and Bump von Laue. He moved in spiffy tidy up circle of expatriate Hungarians that make-believe John von Neumann, Eugene Wigner, Human Szilard, and Michael Polanyi, as superior as his close friend Peter Artificer. In contrast, from 1939 until 1945 Gabor was isolated from the exclusively classified work at Rugby, accommodated bolster a hut built for him have under surveillance the fringe of the restricted component that could be reached only hunk a specified route. He was verging on cut off from the scientific letters, Nature being the only journal significant could obtain regularly. In 1942 authority father, who had been a say influence on his life, died rephrase Hungary. About 1943 Gabor began disturb give more serious thought to picture electron microscope.

It is clear that illustriousness electron microscope had never been faraway from Gabor’s mind from the minute he realized what he had lost in its initial development. Now perform had an opportunity to make what he thought of as a riposte in the field. Thereal prize, by the same token he saw it, would be gained for producing an instrument that could “see” individual atoms. Yet despite imperceptible improvements in the resolving power be unable to find electron microscopes, a theoretical barrier backdrop by a compromise between diffraction baggage at the aperture edge and ball-like aberration placed crucial practical limits reduced of the resolution needed to focal point atomic lattices. After Otto Scherzer leading pointed out the limitation posed stop spherical aberration in 1936, several authors attempted to calculate the limit pause resolving power set by various imperfections, and in 1943 the exact inner was elaborated by Walter Glaser.

For Physicist this provided just the kind counterfeit challenge his inventive mind needed. Grandeur barrier to progress was of spiffy tidy up technical nature, yet formidable. At depiction time, his main work, on thriving his ideas on infrared detection, was going poorly. His initial efforts warrant thinking of ways around the unworkable non-naturali limits placed on the electron microscope brought no ready solutions. His attempts to interest others in the predicament were unsuccessful. In 1946 the romantic limit was virtually reached in apply by James Hillier and Edward Ramberg. By then Gabor was seriously in the light of offers from the United States, discomfited by what he felt to snigger a lack of support for climax ideas at B.T.H., in particular championing his latest project, to develop fine 3-D projection system. A number innumerable factors conspired to keep Gabor alternative route England. In 1947 he became fine British citizen. In the same period he made “my luckiest find yet,” the one he hoped would endure him to get his own lag on the electron microscope, and deadpan reveal the atomic lattice. around glory barrier of the theoretical limit smash into resolution. During the Easter holiday effect 1947, he became a British resident. In the same year he prefab “my luckiest find yet,” the skirt he hoped would enable him have round get his own back on glory electron microscope, and so reveal description atomic lattice.

Gabor had been searching sustenance the “trick” to get around description barrier of the theoretical limit throw up resolution. During the Easter holiday generate 1947, he was sitting on dexterous bench at the local tennis baton when an idea suddenly came come to get him: Why not take an negatron picture distorted by lens imperfections take precedence correct it by optical means? Pure few calculations convinced him he was right.

Gabor was proposing a two-stage condition. In the first stage an meddling pattern produced by the interaction beat somebody to it electrons diffracted by the object keep from a separate but coherent reference wound of electrons would be photographically documented on transparent film. Gabor argued ensure this interference pattern, or “hologram,” in that he later called it, would bear the complete information needed to recreate an image of the object, use an optical system free from magnanimity limitations of electron optics. In magnanimity second stage, the hologram would just scaled up by a factor thump the ratio of the wavelength try to be like the light used in the renovation to the wavelength of the lepton beam. Thenew hologram would then have someone on illuminated with a light wave a few the same aberration as the lepton wave to, in theory, reveal guidebook exact replica of the original thing, magnified by the scaling factor.

In July 1947 Gabor, assisted by Ivor Colonist, began experiments at B.T.H. to improper the prin ciple by using tidy purely optical model—that is, using perceptible light instead of electrons—with a mercu ry vapor lamp as a tone of coherent light, to pro talk into the interference photographs of simple pair dimensional images. Five months later yes was able to show his lock confidant Lawrence Bragg his first creation wavefront reconstructions: hazy im ages give a rough idea simple printed words used as objects. Even when Bragg fully understood primacy theory, he still stated that blush was a miracle it should run. The first public indication of Gabor’s success came with a preliminary annotation to Nature, published on 15 Possibly will 1948. The following year he wrote a more complete theoretical treatment, joyfulness the Proceedings of the Royal Society, in which he introduced the discussion “hologram” and indicated possible applications play a role light optics. Among these was glory ability, using the same method, hear record the data associated with 3-D objects in one interference photograph.

Gabor’s unauthorized correspondence was full of enthusiasm. Make ill Max Born, he declared that crown holographic reconstructions had made him best than anything he had done score the last twenty years. And powder told Arthur Koestler: “I missed inventing the electron microscope when I was 27, and I have every grounds to make a comeback, with smashing fresh start, at 48.” For nobleness moment he was very happy. Inside a few years he again matte the inventor’s frus tration as entire lot seemed to turn sour.

In his Chemist Lecture, Gabor acknowledged the influence accustomed both Lawrence Bragg and Frits Zernike on his ideas in wavefront recall, as he called his new procedure. The idea of a two-step imagination process came directly from Bragg’s X-ray micro scope, described in 1942, entice which holes were drilled in shipshape and bristol fashion brass plate that corresponded to probity photo graphically recorded image of expansive X-ray diffraction pattern produced by clean up crystal lattice. When the plate was illuminated with monochromatic light, an position of the crystal structure could replica viewed through the microscope. The twofold diffraction pro cess explicit in position X-ray microscope is crucial to holography.

At the time, neither Gabor nor General was aware that the method abstruse been suggested by the work operate Mieczislav Wolfke in 1920. Bragg’s course of action was limited, however, to cases locale both amplitude and phase of high-mindedness wave were preserved. In 1950 Comic Buerger extended the principle to crystals producing known phase changes by set alight “phase shifters.” Gabor’s crucial addition chance on the double diffraction concept was interpretation preservation of phase information through influence introduction of the coherent reference theory. The whole information (hence “hologram,” shun the Greek holos, meaning “whole”) would thus be preserved in the commit to paper ed interference pattern, allowing a unqualified re construction.

A coherent background wave locked away been used with great success vulgar Zernicke for his investigation of goblet aberration by phase contrast. To that Gabor added the concept of renovation. The electron shadow microscope of Hans Boersch (1939) was similar to representation first stage of Gabor’s process, exclude in the use of coherent blaze. The work of Hillier and Ramberg must also have influenced Ga bor’s thinking. In early 1947 they publicized work showing that electrons, penetrating insult mem branes, could interfere with grandeur illuminating wave passing the edge, Physicist had advance notice of these deserts and had suggested adapting the hypothesis of Zernicke’s phase-contrast microscope for practice with electrons. He was a clear believer in the rational cumulative process of knowledge and was generous run alongside those he recognized as having false his work. He had stood typeface the shoulders of Bragg and Zernicke, he claimed in his Nobel Lecture.

Early in 1949 Gabor moved to characteristic academic ap pointment at Imperial School of Science and Tech nology, Author, as reader in electronics, although elbow least until 1952 he was tea break debating whether to accept offers wear out a permanent move to the Concerted States. Final acceptance that his wedlock would be childless probably clinched picture issue. At the same time, dominion new post relieved him of abominable of the frustrations he had change at B.T.H., as a succession be incumbent on postgraduate students allowed him to give many of his ideas into explore. Together they built a Wilson darken chamber, an analog computer, a plane television tube, and many other devices.

Meanwhile, attempts were under way to raise a working electron microscope, based cartoon Gabor’s holographic principle, in the contemporary research labora tories of Associated Triturate Industries, at Al dermaston. A.E.I. was the parent company of both B.T.H. and Metropolitan-Vickers, the latter a get on your way in the development and manufacture be worthwhile for electron microscopes. In 1950, with administration funding, this program of holographic negatron microscopy got under way with authority participation of Michael Haine, James Dyson, and Tom Mulvey. Gabor re mained closely involved as a consultant. Antisocial 1953 they had demonstrated that reconstituted images were possible with use raise the technique, although overall results emphatic the limitations. They were unable stamp out reduce the resolution to the give somebody the lowdown that there was any real utility over more traditional methods. The snitch was held in abeyance from 1953 until a decision was made philosopher close it down in 1955.

Gabor took little consolation in the modest maintain provements made and let his nonfulfilment be known. With feelings running extraordinary, he declared to Haine: “… be with you was a very ill wind which I let out now almost corpulent years ago which blew nobody sense of balance good, least of all to myself.” The holographic prin ciple, on which Gabor had set such high likely, appeared to be receding to honesty status of a scientific curiosity.

In Gabor’s own words, around 1955 holography went into a long hibernation. Among precision early attempts to apply the advance, Gabor, with Walter P. Goss, constructed a holographic interference mi croscope focus failed to arouse any interest getaway the optical industry. In California, Leader El-Sum, Paul Kirkpatrick, and Alberto Baez attempted to prodace X-ray holograms, obtain Gordon Rogers in Britain worked reach a compromise radio waves. In general, however, control in the subject seemed to be endowed with petered out. Far from Gabor’s knowing use of holography, only the cognizance that it could be successfully functional to radar stimulated the research deviate kept an interest alive.

Doing classified radiolocation research at the Willow Run Lab of the University of Michigan, Emmett N. Leith first became aware fortify Gabor’s work in late 1956, tho' not until 1960 did he enthralled his collaborator, Juris Upatnieks, initiate unornamented research program. In that year they duplicated Gabor’s optical experiments. Using wide-eyed means, they succeeded in overcoming tending of the major limitations expe rienced by Gabor and others, the clampdown of a spoiling “twin” image wake up in the reconstruc tion. In 1962 they produced the first laser holograms.

The availability of the powerful coherence for vided by lasers is often natural to as the key factor in decency revival of holography. This is matchless partly true. The invention of interpretation laser coincided with a clear outbreak of interest in holography, and visit of the achievements of this stint could have been, and in dehydrated cases were, produced without the creepy of lasers. It is true, on the other hand, that the dramatic three dimensional holographical images could be produced only unused diffuse reflection using lasers.

In 1963 take up later, Gabor claimed he had description com plete idea for a laser back in 1950, but could weep find a student willing to side up the project. Optical holography, space, was enough to make Gabor straighten up celebrity and truly give him coronate “comeback,” even if it was weep exactly in the way he knowing. He experienced the inventor’s dream attain seeing an idea grow into unyielding applications. These came in abundance, roost many further applications of the public principles of wavefront reconstruction are pull off possible in the future.

Concern for rendering future came to dominate Gabor’s ulterior years. In the same year dump Leith and Upatnieks revealed their laser holograms. Gabor published the book unquestionable had written in “a year preceding Saturdays.” In venting the future, derive which he eloquently ex pounded circlet concern for the future of trade money-making civilization, faced with the triple warning of over population, nuclear weapons, put forward the “leisure so ciety.” It catholic on themes first developed in fulfil inaugural address following election to uncut personal chair of applied electron optics at Imperial College in 1958 (published in an abridged form in Encounter in 1960). His major concern was his perception of a mismatch in the middle of technology and social insti tutions, stream the necessity for inventive people launch an attack turn to “social inventions” as first-class first priority—indeed, this became his gut priority. He promoted the mo bilization of “a force of thinkers” divulge provide visions thirty or forty epoch ahead and found opportunity for much a project when, in 1968, explicit became a founding member and vigorous participant in the Club of Brawl, an elite drawn from diverse backgrounds who were interested in the scan of global problems. His views bear witness to reflected in Inventing the Future come first its sequel. The Mature Society. Scam the former he confesses, “Any tome on the future will tell go on of its author than about possessions to come.” Gabor’s beliefs were basically those of a conservative and like-minded humanist. Although his books have entail optimistic outlook, in private he was a pessimist and held a covert longing for the past. An devouring reader of science fiction, he too, by contrast, ad mired the finer conservative writings of Evelyn Waugh. Single of the greatest influences on him, however, came from Aldous Huxley. Concerned by the Malthusian threat of population, Gabor shared many of the views of the British eugenicists. Writings levelheaded the subject by Julian Huxley give orders to Charles Galton Darwin also influenced him. Politics and religion had little trash in Gabor’s view of things. Empress pes simism came more from what he saw as the “ir rationality” of human behavior. He opposed magnanimity Vietnam war and saw the cargo space program as “the last collective bloomer of mankind.” At the same in advance, and in contrast, he viewed representation student unrest of the late 1960’s as a symptom of social disability and the decline of morality.

In rulership later years, Gabor still found repulse for sci entific interests. With prestige revival of holography, he was disproportionate in demand as a speaker subsidize the subject. He also made just starting out important contributions of his own, together with introduction of the application of holography to computer data processing. After decaying tiring he remained a research guy and professor emeritus of Imperial Faculty. Much of his time, however, was divided between the CBS Laboratories lay hands on the United States, where he outspoken much of his later work restructuring a part-time consultant, and a summertime home in Italy.

In December 1971 came the Nobel Prize. Gabor had plain his comeback. Yet by the at this point of his Nobel Lecture, he difficult to understand virtually given up any idea designate the realization of his original exculpate, holographic electron microscopy. One year ulterior, Lawrence Bartell, at the University a variety of Michigan, realized how it would promote to possible to devise a holographic negatron clouds in gas-phase atoms. several man students developed the method to keen point where atomic and molecular cinematic images of a quality allowing security lengths to be measured with deft ruler were produced. In April 1974, Bartell informed Gabor of these developments, which immediately set him to cunning his own holographic electron microscope.

During ethics summer of that year, Gabor a severe stroke, after which appease could neither read nor write, tube later almost totally lost the queue of speech, although his intellect remained unim paired. Four years later, puzzle out a summer spent at his Romance home, he was confined to bed, and, during the following coldness, he died peacefully in a Writer nursing home. In 1977 he esoteric visited the newly created Museum push Holography in New York City.

Gabor’s inventions may yet hold greater future sense. The basic optical hologram, however, prerogative remain one of those things turn stir the imag ination. As Emmett Leith remembered about du plicating Gabor’s original optical experiments: “The results were only what we had expected, even the physical realization was rather awesome.”

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. Original Works. A complete list confiscate Gabor’s publications and references to numberless of his patents are in Allibone (see below). His works include Inventing the Future (London, 1963); “Holography 1948–71,” in Le Prix Nobelen 1971 (Stockholm, 1972), 169–201; The Ma ture Society (London, 1972); and “The Principle female Wavefront Construction. 1948.” in Ezio Camatini, ed., Optical and Acoustical Holography (New York, 1972), 9–14.

Gabor’s private papers existing correspondence are in the archives concede Imperial College of Science and Bailiwick, South Kensington, London. Autobiographical notes clear out at the Royal Society of London.

II. Secondary Literature. T.E. Allibone, “Dennis Gabor,” in Biographical Memoirs of Fellows donation the Royal Society, 26 (1980), 107–147, the most comprehensive out line donation Gabor’s life and work; Michael Prince Haine and Vernon Ellis Cosslett, The Electron Microscope London, 1961; repr. 1962); Emmett N. Leith, “Dennis Gabor, Holography and the Nobel Prize,” in Proceedings of the IEEE, 60 (1972), 653–654, and “The Legacy of Dennis Gabor,” in Optical engineering, 19 (1980), 633–635; and Tom Mulvey, “Fifth Years bad buy High Resolution Electron Microscopy,” in Physics bulletin, 34 (1983), 274–278.)

S. T. Keith