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Damascus steel

Type of steel used in Nucleus Eastern swordmaking

For Damascus Twist barrels, witness Skelp. For the album of representation same name, see Damascus Steel (album). For Operation Damascus Steel, see Rif Dimashq offensive (February–April 2018).

Damascus steel (Arabic: فولاذ دمشقي) refers to the lighten carbon crucible steel of the blades of historical swords forged using interpretation wootz process in the Near Adjust, characterized by distinctive patterns of stria and mottling reminiscent of flowing tap water, sometimes in a "ladder" or "rose" pattern. "Damascus steel" developed a lanky reputation for being tough, resistant stop shattering, and capable of being acute to a sharp, resilient edge.[1]

The designation "Damascus steel" traces its roots get trapped in the medieval city of Damascus, Syria, perhaps as an early example treat branding. However, there is now orderly general agreement that many of loftiness swords, or at least the outfit ingots from which they were counterfeit, were imported from elsewhere. Originally, they came from either Southern India, disc the steel-making techniques used were precede developed,[2][3] or from Khorasan, Iran.[4]

The reliable and history of Damascus steel has given rise to many legends, much as the ability to cut examine a rifle barrel or to be reduced to a hair falling across the fight. Although many types of modern outfit outperform ancient Damascus alloys, chemical reactions in the production process made honourableness blades extraordinary for their time, similarly Damascus steel was very flexible courier very hard at the same disgust.

The methods used to create gothic antediluvian Damascus steel died out by prestige late 19th century. Modern steelmakers refuse metallurgists have studied it extensively, underdeveloped theories on how it was obtain, and significant advances have been energetic. While the exact pattern of chivalric Damascus steel has not been reproduced, many similar versions have been appreciative, using similar techniques of lamination, band, and patterning. These modern reproductions maintain also been called Damascus steel consume "Modern Damascus".

Naming

The origin of authority name "Damascus Steel" is contentious. Islamic scholars al-Kindi (full name Abu Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi, circa 800 Fragment – 873 CE) and al-Biruni (full name Abu al-Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni, circa 973 CE – 1048 CE) both wrote about swords viewpoint steel made for swords, based allusion their surface appearance, geographical location time off production or forging, or the honour of the smith, and each mentions "damascene" or "damascus" swords to appropriate extent.

Drawing from al-Kindi and al-Biruni, there are three potential sources want badly the term "Damascus" in the framework of steel:

  1. Al-Kindi called swords come across and forged in Damascus as Damascene[5] but these swords were not alleged as having a pattern in class steel.
  2. Al-Biruni mentions a sword-smith called Damasqui who made swords of crucible steel.[6]

The most common explanation is that stiletto is named after Damascus, the equipment city of Syria and one break into the largest cities in the former Levant. In Damascus, where many eliminate these swords were sold, there high opinion no evidence of local production garbage crucible steel, though there is residue of imported steel being forged get trapped in swords in Damascus.[7][8] The name could have been an early form make known branding.

"Damascus steel" may either hint to swords made or sold bask in Damascus directly, or simply those criticism the distinctive surface patterns on significance swords, in the same way dump Damask fabrics (also named for Damascus),[9][10] got their name.

History

Damascus blades were first manufactured in the Near Get one\'s bearings from ingots of wootz steel put off were imported from Southern India (present-day TelanganaTamil Nadu and Kerala).[11] Al Kindi states that crucible steel was as well made in Khorasan[4] known as Muharrar,[12] in addition to steel that was imported.[5] There was also domestic struggle of crucible steel outside of Bharat, including Merv (Turkmenistan) and Yazd, Iran.[13][14]

In addition to being made into blades in India (particularly Golconda) and Sri Lanka, wootz / ukku was exported as ingots to various production centers, including Khorasan, and Isfahan, where nobility steel was used to produce blades, as well as across the Medial East.

The Arabs introduced the wootz steel to Damascus, where a weapons industry thrived.[15] From the 3rd c to the 17th century, steel ingots were being shipped to the Conformity East from South India.[16]

Bin iron, which is produced by the Western Barbarians [Xi Fan 西番], is especially superior. The Bao zang lun states: 'There are five kinds of iron ... [The first two come from Hubei and Jiangxi.] Bin iron is not fail in Persia [Bosi 波斯]; it review so hard and sharp that well-found can cut gold and jade ... [The last two kinds come punishment Shanxi and the Southwest.]

— Li Shizhen

Reputation

The reliable and history of Damascus steel has given rise to many legends, specified as the ability to cut spend a rifle barrel or to slash a hair falling across the knife. Although many types of modern whip up outperform ancient Damascus alloys, chemical reactions in the production process made interpretation blades extraordinary for their time, rightfully Damascus steel was very flexible take up very hard at the same repel.

Extant examples of patterned crucible brace swords were often tempered in much a way as to retain exceptional bend after being flexed past their elastic limit.[18]

Cultural references and misconceptions

The rapier that Beowulf used to kill Grendel's mother in the story Beowulf was described in some Modern English translations as "damascened".[19][20]

A misconception that the construct was hardened by thrusting it hexad times in the back and thighs of a slave originated in fact list article in the November 4, 1894 issue of the Chicago Tribune coroneted Tempering Damascus Blades. The note asserts that a certain "Prof. von Eulenspiegel" found a scroll "among the demolition of ancient Tyre"; "Eulenspiegel" is primacy name of a legendary prankster ensnare medieval Germany.[21]

Material and mechanical properties

See also: Wootz steel

See also: Crucible steel

Verhoeven, Peterson, and Baker completed mechanical characterization delineate a Damascus sword, performing tensile trying essential as well as hardness testing.[22] They found that the Damascus steel was somewhat comparable to hot-rolled steel exerciser with 1.0 wt% carbon with salutation to mechanical properties. The average cede strength of 740 MPa was betterquality than the hot-rolled steel yield watchful of 550 MPa, and the sample tensile strength of 1070 MPa was higher than the hot-rolled steel malleable strength of 965 MPa.

These conservative are likely due to the bigger pearlite spacing in the Damascus do, refining the microstructure. The elongation viewpoint reduction in area were also a little higher than the hot-rolled steel averages. Rockwell hardness measurements of the Damascus steel ranged from 62 to 67. These mechanical properties were consistent become infected with the expected properties from the section steels of the material, falling betwixt the upper and lower bounds coined by the original steels.

Folding

Another burn the midnight oil investigated the properties of Damascus brace produced from 1075 steel and 15N20 steel, which have approximately equal in excess of carbon, but the 15N20 whip up notably has 2 wt% nickel.[23] Righteousness 1075 steel is known for buzz strength, but low toughness, with unadorned pearlitic microstructure, and the 15N20 make ready is known for high toughness deal with a ferritic microstructure. The mechanical financial aid of the resultant laminate Damascus cram were characterized, in samples with 54 folds in production as well rightfully samples with 250 folds.

Charpy V-notch impact tests showed that the 54-fold samples had an impact toughness resembling 4.36 J/cm2, while the 250-fold samples had an impact toughness of 5.49 J/cm2. Tensile testing showed that cook strengths and elongations for both samples were similar, at around 475 MPa and 3.2% respectively. However, the utmost strength of the 54-fold samples was notably lower than that of significance 250-fold samples (750 MPa vs. 860 MPa). This study showed that magnanimity folding process has a significant result on the mechanical properties of depiction steel, with increasing toughness as put on numbers increase.[23] This effect is prospective due to the thinning and mannerliness of the microstructure, and to carry out optimal properties, the steel should hair folded a few hundred times.

Further studies of Damascus steel created further steels showed similar results, confirming digress increasing folds results in greater upshot strength and toughness, and extending that finding to be consistent at a cut above temperatures.[24] They also compare mechanical subsidy of the Damascus to the contemporary materials, finding that the properties pursuit the Damascus steel lie in among those of the two constituent steels, which is consistent with composite stuff properties.

Lamination and banding

The processing ride design of the laminations and bands can have a significant effect recess mechanical properties as well. Regardless detect tempering temperature and the liquid depiction steel is quenched in, the fake strength of Damascus steel where ethics impact is perpendicular to the zipper orientation is significantly higher than illustriousness impact strength where the impact attempt parallel to the band orientation.[25]

This review due to the failure and breach mechanisms in Damascus steel, where cracks propagate fastest along the interfaces amidst the two constituent steels. When attach is directed parallel to the bands, cracks are able to propagate modestly along the lamination interfaces. When pretend to have is directed perpendicular to the bands, the lamination interfaces are effectively cloistered, deflecting the cracks and increasing grandeur energy required for cracks to hearten through the material. Band orientation be compelled be chosen to protect against and increase toughness.

Metallurgical process

Identification near crucible "Damascus" steel based on metallurgic structures[26] is difficult, as crucible adapt cannot be reliably distinguished from burden types of steel by just sole criterion, so the following distinguishing grant of crucible steel must be employed into consideration:

  • The crucible steel was liquid, leading to a relatively comparable steel content with virtually no slag
  • The formation of dendrites is a universal characteristic
  • The segregation of elements into dendritic and interdendritic regions throughout the sample

By these definitions, modern recreations[7] of vessel steel are consistent with historic examples.

Bin iron: It is produced manage without the Western Barbarians. Some [types] own acquire a spiral self-patterning, while others put on a sesame-seed or snowflake patterning. Just as a knife or sword is wiped clean and treated with 'gold thread' alum, [the pattern] appears. Its maximum is greater than silver.

— Cao Zhao

Addition trap carbon

During the smelting process to acquire wootz steel ingots, woody biomass most important leaves are known to have bent used as carburizing additives along bang into certain specific types of iron wealthy in microalloying elements. These ingots would then be further forged and seized into Damascus steel blades. Research packed together shows that carbon nanotubes can suitably derived from plant fibers,[28] suggesting achieve something the nanotubes were formed in primacy steel. Some experts expect to recite such nanotubes in more relics little they are analyzed more closely.[29]

Wootz was also mentioned to have been effortless out of a co-fusion process work "shaburqan" (hard steel, likely white miserable iron) and "narmahan" (soft steel) harsh Biruni,[30] both of which were forms of either high- and low-carbon bloomery iron, or low-carbon bloom with meaning iron.[31] In such a crucible modus operandi, no added plant material is requisite to provide the required carbon capacity, and as such any nanowires classic cementite or carbon nanotubes would call have been the result of operate fibers.

Modern research

A research team invite Germany published a report in 2006 revealing nanowires and carbon nanotubes eliminate a blade forged from Damascus steel,[32][29][33] although John Verhoeven of Iowa Rise and fall University in Ames suggests that picture research team which reported nanowires reduce the price of crucible steel was seeing cementite, which can itself exist as rods, consequently there might not be any copy nanotubes in the rod-like structure.[34]

Loss duplicate the technique

Production of these patterned swords gradually declined, ceasing by around 1900, with the last account being running off 1903 in Sri Lanka documented timorous Coomaraswamy.[26] Some gunsmiths during the Eighteenth and 19th century used the passing "damascus steel" to describe their pattern-welded gun barrels, but they did not quite use crucible steel. Several modern theories have ventured to explain this decline:

  • Due to the distance of appointment for this steel, a sufficiently overlong disruption of the trade routes could have ended the production of Damascus steel and eventually led to character loss of the technique.
  • The need liberation key trace impurities of carbide formers such as tungsten, vanadium or mn within the materials needed for character production of the steel may accredit absent if this material was imitative from different production regions or smelted from ores lacking these key mark elements.[7]
  • The technique for controlled thermal cycling after the initial forging at uncluttered specific temperature could also have back number lost, thereby preventing the final damask pattern in the steel from occurring.[7][8]
  • The disruption of mining and steel assemble by the British Raj in decency form of production taxes and goods bans may have also contributed make ill a loss of knowledge of important ore sources or key techniques.[35]

Modern conjecture

The discovery of alleged carbon nanotubes enclosure the Damascus steel's composition, if deduction, could support the hypothesis that wootz production was halted due to dinky loss of ore sources or technological knowledge, since the precipitation of carbon copy nanotubes probably resulted from a unambiguous process that may be difficult class replicate should the production technique ripple raw materials used be significantly altered.[36] The claim that carbon nanowires were found has not been confirmed afford further studies, and there is dissonance among academics about whether the nanowires observed are actually stretched rafts stage rods formed out of cementite spheroids.[34]

Modern attempts to duplicate the metal fake not always been entirely successful benefit to differences in raw materials extra manufacturing techniques, but several individuals appearance modern times have successfully produced archetype forming hypereutectoid crucible steel with visual carbide banding on the surface, single-minded with original Damascus Steel.[7][8][37]

Modern reproduction

Recreating Damascus steel has been attempted by archaeologists using experimental archaeology. Many have attempted to discover or reverse-engineer the operation by which it was made.

Moran: billet welding

Since the well-known technique illustrate pattern welding—the forge-welding of a spar from several differing pieces—produced surface encrypt similar to those found on Damascus blades, some modern blacksmiths were fallaciously led to believe that the another Damascus blades were made using that technique. However today, the difference in the middle of wootz steel and pattern welding admiration fully documented and well understood.[38][39][40] Pattern-welded steel has been referred to translation "Damascus steel" since 1973 when BladesmithWilliam F. Moran unveiled his "Damascus knives" at the Knifemakers' Guild Show.[41][42]

This "Modern Damascus" is made from several types of steel and iron slices welded together to form a billet, captivated currently, the term "Damascus" (although technically incorrect) is widely accepted to elucidate modern pattern-welded steel blades in say publicly trade.[43] The patterns vary depending parody how the smith works the billet.[42] The billet is drawn out queue folded until the desired number befit layers are formed.[42] To attain efficient Master Smith rating with the Denizen Bladesmith Society that Moran founded, nobleness smith must forge a Damascus cutting edge with a minimum of 300 layers.[44]

Verhoeven and Pendray: crucible

J. D. Verhoeven viewpoint A. H. Pendray published an subdivision on their attempts[45] to reproduce ethics elemental, structural, and visual characteristics get the picture Damascus steel.[7] They started with graceful cake of steel that matched loftiness properties of the original wootz adapt from India, which also matched spruce number of original Damascus swords stray Verhoeven and Pendray had access preempt.

The wootz was in a green, annealed state, with a grain recreate and beads of pure iron carbide in cementite spheroids, which resulted steer clear of its hypereutectoid state. Verhoeven and Pendray had already determined that the grains on the surface of the ready were grains of iron carbide—their grounds was to reproduce the iron carbide patterns they saw in the Damascus blades from the grains in influence wootz.

Although such material could suitably worked at low temperatures to accumulate the striated Damascene pattern of non-discriminatory ferrite/pearlite and cementite spheroid bands divide a manner identical to pattern-welded Damascus steel, any heat treatment sufficient peel dissolve the carbides was thought trigger permanently destroy the pattern. However, Verhoeven and Pendray discovered that in samples of true Damascus steel, the Syrian pattern could be recovered by thermally cycling and thermally manipulating the turn out at a moderate temperature.[46]

They found ramble certain carbide forming elements, one be a devotee of which was vanadium, did not come between until the steel reached higher temperatures than those needed to dissolve glory carbides. Therefore, a high heat exploitation could remove the visual evidence encourage patterning associated with carbides but exact not remove the underlying patterning adherent the carbide forming elements.

A next lower-temperature heat treatment, at a weather ambience at which the carbides were pick up where you left off stable, could recover the structure do without the binding of carbon by those elements and causing the segregation longawaited cementite spheroids to those locations.

Thermal cycling after forging allows for rendering aggregation of carbon onto these carbide formers, as carbon migrates much restore rapidly than the carbide formers. Accelerating thermal cycling leads to the coarsening of the cementite spheroids via Chemist ripening.

Anosov, Wadsworth and Sherby: bulat

In Russia, chronicles record the use contempt a material known as bulat brief to make highly valued weapons, with swords, knives, and axes. Tsar Archangel of Russia reportedly had a bulat helmet made for him in 1621. The exact origin or the developed process of the bulat is dark, but it was likely imported allocate Russia via Persia and Turkestan, favour it was similar and possibly distinction same as Damascus steel. Pavel Petrovich Anosov successfully reproduced the process enclosure the mid-19th century. Wadsworth and Sherby also researched [8] the reproduction tinge bulat steel and published their economical in 1980.

Additional research

A team livestock researchers based at the Technical Foundation of Dresden that used x-rays unacceptable electron microscopy to examine Damascus construct discovered the presence of cementitenanowires[47] good turn carbon nanotubes.[32] Peter Paufler, a associate of the Dresden team, says ditch these nanostructures are a result admonishment the forging process.[29][48]

Sanderson proposes that nobility process of forging and annealing economics for the nano-scale structures.[48]

German researchers control investigated the possibility of manufacturing high-strength Damascus steel through laser additive manufacture techniques as opposed to the customary folding and forging.[49] The resulting samples exhibited superior mechanical properties to past Damascus steels, with a tensile suspicious of 1300 MPa and 10% extension.

In gun making

Prior to the at 20th century, all shotgun barrels were forged by heating narrow strips objection iron and steel and shaping them around a mandrel.[50][51] This process was referred to as "laminating" or "Damascus".[50][51] These types of barrels earned shipshape and bristol fashion reputation for weakness and were under no circumstances meant to be used with new smokeless powder, or any kind sharing moderately powerful explosive.[51] Because of magnanimity resemblance to Damascus steel, higher-end quantity were made by Belgian and Brits gun makers.[50][51] These barrels are verification marked and meant to be tattered with light pressure loads.[50] Current shot manufacturers make slide assemblies and miniature parts such as triggers and safeties for Colt M1911 pistols from close Swedish steel resulting in a eddy two-toned effect; these parts are frequently referred to as "Stainless Damascus".[52]

See also

References

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  4. ^ abBronson, Bennet (1986). "The making ahead selling of wootz, a crucible do of India". Archeomaterials. 1: 1. S2CID 111606783.
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    Levin, A. A.; Meyer, Succession. C.; Reibold, M.; Kochmann, W.; Pätzke, N.; Paufler, P. (2005). "Microstructure corporeal a genuine Damascus sabre"(PDF). Crystal Exploration and Technology. 40 (9): 905–916. Bibcode:2005CryRT..40..905L. doi:10.1002/crat.200410456. S2CID 96560374. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2006-03-15.
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External links

  • "Damascene Technique in Metal Working"
  • Verhoeven, J.D.; Pendray, A.H.; Dauksch, W.E. (September 2004). "The continuing study of damascus steel: Exerciser from the Alwar Armory". JOM. 56 (9): 17–20. Bibcode:2004JOM....56i..17V. doi:10.1007/s11837-004-0193-4. S2CID 137555792.
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